Toxicological Profile for Hydrogen Sulfide – U.S. Department Of Health And Human Services
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
July 2006
(The document introduction “Public Health Statement” is shown below. The Table of Contents and a link to the full 253-page document are listed further down.)
1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT
This public health statement tells you about hydrogen sulfide and the effects of exposure to it.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious hazardous waste sites in
the nation. These sites are then placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) and are targeted for
long-term federal clean-up activities. Hydrogen sulfide has been found in at least 35 of the
1,689 current or former NPL sites. Although the total number of NPL sites evaluated for this
substance is not known, the possibility exists that the number of sites at which hydrogen sulfide
is found may increase in the future as more sites are evaluated. This information is important
because these sites may be sources of exposure and exposure to this substance may harm you.
When a substance is released either from a large area, such as an industrial plant, or from a
container, such as a drum or bottle, it enters the environment. Such a release does not always
lead to exposure. You can be exposed to a substance only when you come in contact with it.
You may be exposed by breathing, eating, or drinking the substance, or by skin contact.
If you are exposed to hydrogen sulfide, many factors will determine whether you will be harmed.
These factors include the dose (how much), the duration (how long), and how you come in
contact with it. You must also consider any other chemicals you are exposed to and your age,
sex, diet, family traits, lifestyle, and state of health.
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CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii
UPDATE STATEMENT ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iii
FOREWORD …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. v
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS…………………………………………………………..vii
CONTRIBUTORS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..ix
PEER REVIEW …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xi
CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….xiii
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xvii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xix
1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 WHAT IS HYDROGEN SULFIDE?……………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE WHEN IT ENTERS THE
ENVIRONMENT? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE? …………………………………………. 2
1.4 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? ………………………… 3
1.5 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE AFFECT MY HEALTH? ……………………………………….. 4
1.6 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE AFFECT CHILDREN?…………………………………………… 5
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO HYDROGEN
SULFIDE?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN
EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE? ………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO
PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?……………………………………………………………………………………. 7
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? …………………………………………………………….. 8
2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH ……………………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO HYDROGEN
SULFIDE IN THE UNITED STATES …………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs) …………………………………………………………………………….. 14
3. HEALTH EFFECTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
3.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE ……………………………. 21
3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
3.2.1.1 Death ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects……………………………………………………… 61
3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects……………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………. 68
3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects ……………………………………………………………………………………. 70
3.2.1.7 Cancer………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71
3.2.2 Oral Exposure……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
3.2.2.1 Death ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 72
3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects……………………………………………………… 73
3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects……………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects ……………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.2.7 Cancer………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
3.2.3 Dermal Exposure……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.3.1 Death ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 74
3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects……………………………………………………… 74
3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects……………………………………………………………………………………….. 74
3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………. 75
3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects ……………………………………………………………………………………. 75
3.2.3.7 Cancer………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75
3.3 GENOTOXICITY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
3.4 TOXICOKINETICS………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75
3.4.1 Absorption……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 76
3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
3.4.1.3 Dermal Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 77
3.4.2 Distribution …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
3.4.2.1 Inhalation Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
3.4.2.3 Dermal Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 79
3.4.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………….. 79
3.4.3 Metabolism…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
3.4.4 Elimination and Excretion……………………………………………………………………………………….. 82
3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………… 82
3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………………… 82
3.4.4.3 Dermal Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 83
3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models …………. 83
3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION …………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
3.5.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations …………………………………………………………………………….. 88
3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS…………………….. 88
3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY………………………………………………………………………………. 89
3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT ………………………………………………………….. 91
3.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide ………………………. 92
3.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Hydrogen Sulfide ………………………… 93
3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS ………………………………………………………….. 93
3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE……………………………………….. 95
3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS…………………………………………………………. 95
3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure …………………………………………………….. 96
3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden……………………………………………………………………………………….. 97
3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects ……………………………………. 97
3.12 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE……………………………………………………………………………. 98
3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Hydrogen Sulfide …………………………………… 98
3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs ………………………………………………………………………………. 100
3.12.3 Ongoing Studies……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 107
4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION…………………………………………………………………… 109
4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY…………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES……………………………………………………………. 109
5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL…………………………………………………. 113
5.1 PRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
5.3 USE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 114
5.4 DISPOSAL…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 114
6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE …………………………………………………………………………….. 115
6.1 OVERVIEW…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 115
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT…………………………………………………………………….. 118
6.2.1 Air …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 118
6.2.2 Water…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 119
6.2.3 Soil ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 120
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning……………………………………………………………………………………… 121
6.3.2 Transformation and Degradation ……………………………………………………………………………. 122
6.3.2.1 Air……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 122
6.3.2.2 Water ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 122
6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil…………………………………………………………………………………………. 123
6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT…………………………. 123
6.4.1 Air …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 124
6.4.2 Water…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 127
6.4.3 Sediment and Soil ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 127
6.4.4 Other Environmental Media…………………………………………………………………………………… 128
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE ………………………………. 129
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN………………………………………………………………………………….. 131
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES ……………………………………. 132
6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE………………………………………………………………………….. 132
6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs ………………………………………………………………………………….. 133
6.8.2 Ongoing Studies …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 135
7. ANALYTICAL METHODS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 137
7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS……………………………………………………………………………………. 137
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES……………………………………………………………………………….. 143
7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE………………………………………………………………………….. 151
7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs ………………………………………………………………………………….. 151
7.3.2 Ongoing Studies …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 152
8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES ………………………………………………………………………………….. 153
9. REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 159
10. GLOSSARY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 201
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Full document: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp114-p.pdf
Poison Facts: High Chemicals: Hydrogen Sulfide
Document pulled from The University of Kansas Hospital (http://www.kumed.com)
Full document: http://www.kumed.com/documents/KDHEHydrogenSulfide.pdf
What Are the Hazards of Sulfur?
Source: http://www.ehow.com/info_8419894_hazards-sulfur.html
Sulfur is a chemical element that is nonmetallic. It has a pale yellow color and has no odor. Sulfur in gaseous form combines with oxygen to form sulfur oxide. Sulfur is used to make fertilizer and various types of disinfectant. It is also used in medical laboratories to test skin disease. Sulfur is, however, a hazardous element that should be handled with care.
Health Hazards
Sulfur in a gaseous state mixes with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide, which is hazardous. Inhalation of sulfur fumes causes irritation of the eyes, nose and respiratory track, which leads to headaches, dizziness and nausea. High levels of sulfur can burn the skin, and it can also cause pulmonary edema, a condition in which the lungs are filled up with fluids. Inhaling sulfur may also cause coughing, sneezing or labored breathing.
Fire Hazard
Fine dust of sulfur dispersed in the air is a potential hazard. When sulfur dust mixes with oxygen, it forms sulfur dioxide, which when ignited causes explosion. Dust suspended in air is readily ignited by fumes or static electricity and can cause destructive fires. Fires caused by sulfur are hard to put out because once they spread the presence of oxygen only serves to increase the fire.
Corrosive Hazard
Sulfur is stable and nonreactive when dry, but it is very reactive when it comes into contact with moisture. This makes it react readily with metals and many oxidizing and reducing agents when in the presence of moisture. In the presence of moisture and oxygen, it becomes sulfur dioxide, which forms an acidic and corrosive solution and thus causes corroding of metals.
Environmental Hazard
When sulfur dust comes into contact with oxygen to become sulfur dioxide, it has serious environmental hazards. It affects the living organisms around the area. Sulfur causes vascular damage in veins of the brain, the heart and the kidney. Sulfur can also cause damage to the internal enzyme systems of animals.
References
Letter to Mayor & Town Council – Dr. John Johnson & Dr. Robert Coles
August 9, 2011
To: The Mayor and Board of The Town of Morehead City, NC
We are writing to let you know that we are vehemently opposed to any potential expansion of Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan’s operations at our port, either in the form of a new sulfur melting facility or the handling of bulk dry sulfur. Tourism, residential areas and heavy industrial chemical processing cannot exist within a half mile of each other. Any decision to allow this to happen would simply fly in the face of logic.
My name is Ted Johnson. As a surgeon who has spent time in our military, I understand that sometimes our citizens must be placed in harm’s way to defend our freedom and rights as a nation, but to put the citizens of this county in harm’s way merely for the sake of allowing the port of Morehead to turn a dollar is abominable. PCS has modeled their virgin foray into sulfur melting on the ‘best case scenario’ but do you realize the catastrophe you could have on your hands if a ‘worst case scenario’ situation played out, which we all know can happen, whether it is due to equipment malfunction, operator error, or a deliberate act?
Molten sulfur has been handled here for many years without incident, but handling and melting dry sulfur is a whole different ballgame. Sulfur dust is explosive, it is irritating to the eyes, nasal passages, and respiratory system. The young and old are particularly susceptible to small concentrations of any gases. I don’t know if you are aware that there is a retirement/nursing home within a 1/2 mile of this proposed facility (Harborview).
As practicing physicians and surgeons in this town, we can tell you unequivocally that our health care infrastructure is incapable of dealing with any kind of mass casualty or mass injury situation that could possibly occur with an accident here. We are a small community hospital. The nearest Level I trauma center is in GREENVILLE, which is well over ONE HOUR AWAY. It could take hours to get enough healthcare providers into the area and/or patients out, which would undoubtedly lead to a much greater loss of life.
In our humble opinion, and that of all other healthcare providers here with whom we have spoken, these are risks that you, as a responsible individuals much less our elected officials, cannot take with our citizens. This would be reckless and irresponsible and send a strong message that profits mean more to you than people.
Our hope is that common sense will prevail. If you wish to discuss this further, please feel free to call either of us, or better yet, come to the next meeting of the Carteret County Medical Society so we can discuss the health care provider impacts of this in greater detail.
Sincerely,
Dr. John T. Johnson
General Surgeon and Partner
Carolinas Center for Surgery and the Surgical Center of Morehead City
Dr. Robert Coles
Orthopedic Surgeon and Partner;
Carolinas Center for Surgery and the Surgical Center of Morehead City
President, Carteret County Medical Society
3714 Guardian Avenue
Morehead City, NC 28557
252-247-2101
Statement at 7/18 County Commissioners’ Meeting – Dr. Andrew Kiluk, Oceanside Pediatrics
Good evening commissioners,
My name is Andrew Kiluk. I am a Morehead City resident and business owner for nearly five years. I‘m also a pediatrician with over 16 years’ experience. Normally summer is a time where we expect our children to be over the illnesses of the winter months. This summer, however, has been an anomaly. Due to the forest fires in Hampstead and Alligator River, the number of ill visits for our asthmatic patients has spiked dramatically!
A cynic might say, that the fires effect on our air quality has been good for my business, I, however, would much rather fill the summer schedule with athletic physicals and kindergarten checkups, rather than see this fragile population of asthmatic children struggle. If you’re curious as to what an asthma attack feels like, try taking a three mile run in 90 degree heat, while breathing through a straw.
One of my many concerns with the proposed sulfur melting plant at the port is directly related to the quality of our air and the health of my patients. I firmly believe that such a facility will affect our county’s air quality and subsequently our citizens’ health in a negative way.
Children have higher resting respiratory rates than adults, which increase their overall exposure to pollutants such as sulfur-dioxide. Our children are also placed at a higher risk as they tend to spend more time outside playing and exercising than adults.
There is also evidence that the pollutants being released by such a facility have been linked to cancer and sudden infant death syndrome. The exposures to the pollutants of a sulfur melting facility will be great and our children will suffer for it.
I urge the board to join the city councils of both Beaufort & Morehead City to adopt a resolution opposing the planned sulfur melting facility and explore all avenues available in preventing its construction.
Thank you for your time.
Andrew Kiluk
Oceanside Pediatrics
