U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

July 2006

(The document introduction “Public Health Statement” is shown below.   The Table of Contents and a link to the full 253-page document are listed further down.)

1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT

This public health statement tells you about hydrogen sulfide and the effects of exposure to it.

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies the most serious hazardous waste sites in
the nation. These sites are then placed on the National Priorities List (NPL) and are targeted for
long-term federal clean-up activities. Hydrogen sulfide has been found in at least 35 of the
1,689 current or former NPL sites. Although the total number of NPL sites evaluated for this
substance is not known, the possibility exists that the number of sites at which hydrogen sulfide
is found may increase in the future as more sites are evaluated. This information is important
because these sites may be sources of exposure and exposure to this substance may harm you.

When a substance is released either from a large area, such as an industrial plant, or from a
container, such as a drum or bottle, it enters the environment. Such a release does not always
lead to exposure. You can be exposed to a substance only when you come in contact with it.
You may be exposed by breathing, eating, or drinking the substance, or by skin contact.

If you are exposed to hydrogen sulfide, many factors will determine whether you will be harmed.
These factors include the dose (how much), the duration (how long), and how you come in
contact with it. You must also consider any other chemicals you are exposed to and your age,
sex, diet, family traits, lifestyle, and state of health.

…..

CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii
UPDATE STATEMENT ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..iii
FOREWORD …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. v
QUICK REFERENCE FOR HEALTH CARE PROVIDERS…………………………………………………………..vii
CONTRIBUTORS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..ix
PEER REVIEW …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xi
CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….xiii
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xvii
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………xix
1. PUBLIC HEALTH STATEMENT……………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 WHAT IS HYDROGEN SULFIDE?……………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.2 WHAT HAPPENS TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE WHEN IT ENTERS THE
ENVIRONMENT? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
1.3 HOW MIGHT I BE EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE? …………………………………………. 2
1.4 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE ENTER AND LEAVE MY BODY? ………………………… 3
1.5 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE AFFECT MY HEALTH? ……………………………………….. 4
1.6 HOW CAN HYDROGEN SULFIDE AFFECT CHILDREN?…………………………………………… 5
1.7 HOW CAN FAMILIES REDUCE THE RISK OF EXPOSURE TO HYDROGEN
SULFIDE?…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.8 IS THERE A MEDICAL TEST TO DETERMINE WHETHER I HAVE BEEN
EXPOSED TO HYDROGEN SULFIDE? ………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.9 WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS HAS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT MADE TO
PROTECT HUMAN HEALTH?……………………………………………………………………………………. 7
1.10 WHERE CAN I GET MORE INFORMATION? …………………………………………………………….. 8
2. RELEVANCE TO PUBLIC HEALTH ……………………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.1 BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO HYDROGEN
SULFIDE IN THE UNITED STATES …………………………………………………………………………… 9
2.2 SUMMARY OF HEALTH EFFECTS………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.3 MINIMAL RISK LEVELS (MRLs) …………………………………………………………………………….. 14
3. HEALTH EFFECTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
3.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
3.2 DISCUSSION OF HEALTH EFFECTS BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE ……………………………. 21
3.2.1 Inhalation Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
3.2.1.1 Death ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
3.2.1.2 Systemic Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
3.2.1.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects……………………………………………………… 61
3.2.1.4 Neurological Effects……………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
3.2.1.5 Reproductive Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………. 68
3.2.1.6 Developmental Effects ……………………………………………………………………………………. 70
3.2.1.7 Cancer………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71
3.2.2 Oral Exposure……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
3.2.2.1 Death ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 72
3.2.2.2 Systemic Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
3.2.2.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects……………………………………………………… 73

3.2.2.4 Neurological Effects……………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
3.2.2.5 Reproductive Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.2.6 Developmental Effects ……………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.2.7 Cancer………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
3.2.3 Dermal Exposure……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.3.1 Death ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73
3.2.3.2 Systemic Effects …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 74
3.2.3.3 Immunological and Lymphoreticular Effects……………………………………………………… 74
3.2.3.4 Neurological Effects……………………………………………………………………………………….. 74
3.2.3.5 Reproductive Effects ………………………………………………………………………………………. 75
3.2.3.6 Developmental Effects ……………………………………………………………………………………. 75
3.2.3.7 Cancer………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75
3.3 GENOTOXICITY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75
3.4 TOXICOKINETICS………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 75
3.4.1 Absorption……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 76
3.4.1.1 Inhalation Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
3.4.1.2 Oral Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76
3.4.1.3 Dermal Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 77
3.4.2 Distribution …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
3.4.2.1 Inhalation Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
3.4.2.2 Oral Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
3.4.2.3 Dermal Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 79
3.4.2.4 Other Routes of Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………….. 79
3.4.3 Metabolism…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 79
3.4.4 Elimination and Excretion……………………………………………………………………………………….. 82
3.4.4.1 Inhalation Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………… 82
3.4.4.2 Oral Exposure………………………………………………………………………………………………… 82
3.4.4.3 Dermal Exposure ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 83
3.4.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK)/Pharmacodynamic (PD) Models …………. 83
3.5 MECHANISMS OF ACTION …………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
3.5.1 Pharmacokinetic Mechanisms………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
3.5.2 Mechanisms of Toxicity………………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
3.5.3 Animal-to-Human Extrapolations …………………………………………………………………………….. 88
3.6 TOXICITIES MEDIATED THROUGH THE NEUROENDOCRINE AXIS…………………….. 88
3.7 CHILDREN’S SUSCEPTIBILITY………………………………………………………………………………. 89
3.8 BIOMARKERS OF EXPOSURE AND EFFECT ………………………………………………………….. 91
3.8.1 Biomarkers Used to Identify or Quantify Exposure to Hydrogen Sulfide ………………………. 92
3.8.2 Biomarkers Used to Characterize Effects Caused by Hydrogen Sulfide ………………………… 93
3.9 INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHEMICALS ………………………………………………………….. 93
3.10 POPULATIONS THAT ARE UNUSUALLY SUSCEPTIBLE……………………………………….. 95
3.11 METHODS FOR REDUCING TOXIC EFFECTS…………………………………………………………. 95
3.11.1 Reducing Peak Absorption Following Exposure …………………………………………………….. 96
3.11.2 Reducing Body Burden……………………………………………………………………………………….. 97
3.11.3 Interfering with the Mechanism of Action for Toxic Effects ……………………………………. 97
3.12 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE……………………………………………………………………………. 98
3.12.1 Existing Information on Health Effects of Hydrogen Sulfide …………………………………… 98
3.12.2 Identification of Data Needs ………………………………………………………………………………. 100
3.12.3 Ongoing Studies……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 107

4. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION…………………………………………………………………… 109
4.1 CHEMICAL IDENTITY…………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
4.2 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES……………………………………………………………. 109
5. PRODUCTION, IMPORT/EXPORT, USE, AND DISPOSAL…………………………………………………. 113
5.1 PRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
5.2 IMPORT/EXPORT ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 113
5.3 USE……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 114
5.4 DISPOSAL…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 114
6. POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE …………………………………………………………………………….. 115
6.1 OVERVIEW…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 115
6.2 RELEASES TO THE ENVIRONMENT…………………………………………………………………….. 118
6.2.1 Air …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 118
6.2.2 Water…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 119
6.2.3 Soil ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 120
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
6.3.1 Transport and Partitioning……………………………………………………………………………………… 121
6.3.2 Transformation and Degradation ……………………………………………………………………………. 122
6.3.2.1 Air……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 122
6.3.2.2 Water ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 122
6.3.2.3 Sediment and Soil…………………………………………………………………………………………. 123
6.4 LEVELS MONITORED OR ESTIMATED IN THE ENVIRONMENT…………………………. 123
6.4.1 Air …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 124
6.4.2 Water…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 127
6.4.3 Sediment and Soil ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 127
6.4.4 Other Environmental Media…………………………………………………………………………………… 128
6.5 GENERAL POPULATION AND OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE ………………………………. 129
6.6 EXPOSURES OF CHILDREN………………………………………………………………………………….. 131
6.7 POPULATIONS WITH POTENTIALLY HIGH EXPOSURES ……………………………………. 132
6.8 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE………………………………………………………………………….. 132
6.8.1 Identification of Data Needs ………………………………………………………………………………….. 133
6.8.2 Ongoing Studies …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 135
7. ANALYTICAL METHODS ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 137
7.1 BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS……………………………………………………………………………………. 137
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES……………………………………………………………………………….. 143
7.3 ADEQUACY OF THE DATABASE………………………………………………………………………….. 151
7.3.1 Identification of Data Needs ………………………………………………………………………………….. 151
7.3.2 Ongoing Studies …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 152
8. REGULATIONS AND ADVISORIES ………………………………………………………………………………….. 153
9. REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 159
10. GLOSSARY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 201

……

Full document:  http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp114-p.pdf